Essay Topics Related to Literacy

<h1>Essay Topics Related to Literacy</h1><p>Essay themes identified with proficiency depend in transit you learn and how well you do in school. It is significant that you pay attention to your classes as could reasonably be expected, since probably the most significant things that you will take with you into this present reality are what you have realized in school. Furthermore, there are additionally numerous issues identified with education that you will experience in different parts of your life. It is likewise one of the most significant things that you ought to consider when you are intending to go to college.</p><p></p><p>The primary worry with this theme is the intensity of the human psyche. Also, there are a few people who have it in their blood. At the point when you comprehend and get familiar with another ability, the human brain rushes to get a handle on the idea. The issue comes when the psyche neglects to hold the idea or when i t begins to understand the issue in an alternate manner. The understudy who comprehends this frequently has a genuine preferred position over other students.</p><p></p><p>One of the reasons why finding out about proficiency is significant is on the grounds that it offers you a chance to think about the things that you don't comprehend. Also, by thinking about these ideas, you can concoct an answer for any circumstance that you experience. In some cases it is similarly as essential to consider arrangements it is to communicate a feeling. Likewise, it assists with making examinations and clarify distinctive ideas.</p><p></p><p>This is additionally one of the fundamental explanation that making an association between explicit occasions and things that are identified with education is significant. You ought to consistently recollect that education is something other than perusing, composing, and spelling. There are numerous different abili ties and properties that help us succeed. At the point when you meet somebody who doesn't think a lot about education, you ought to never be reluctant to come to a meaningful conclusion. It is really simpler to get individuals to focus on you on the off chance that you have something to say.</p><p></p><p>One of the most testing things that you will experience in the English class is that you should compose and talk well. Remember that you are going to commit errors. This is the reason there are a wide range of exposition points identified with education that you can discover on the Internet. In the event that you are just presented to a modest quantity of them, it may not be workable for you to see how you can utilize the thoughts and information in an important way.</p><p></p><p>The best thing that you can do when you are going to take the English class is to take a few classes that are identified with it. There are numerous organizat ions and schools that offer such classes. For whatever length of time that you are heading off to your English class, you ought not experience any difficulty learning. In the event that you don't have a great deal of understanding, at that point you should investigate getting some classes.</p><p></p><p>Finally, when you are searching for approaches to make yourself look great in your group, you should search for exposition themes identified with proficiency. This may take some time, yet on the off chance that you keep at it, you will find that the course will merit the exertion. You should make a few forfeits so as to get a passing mark, yet you should recollect that you are worth it.</p>

How to Create a Voice for Your Brand

It's something you've been told to do for years, as far back as your high school English classes: Define your voice. Voice is sometimes talked about as some ineffable je ne sais quoi. It's something that's felt more than defined. Related: Branding? Follow this template for creating a brand platform But in reality, voice—the elements of personality that make a brand or person so distinctly themselves—can and should be defined. In fact, according to the Nielsen Norman Group, voice can have a huge impact on how much consumers trust or care about a brand. And that matters, because customers are far more likely to spend money with a reliable brand than an unreliable one. Not sure what your brand's personality is or should be? Here are five tips to help you define and sustain your brand's voice. 1. Spend time putting words to your brand voice While this step might look simple on the surface, it's something a lot of companies overlook. If you want your brand's voice to be consistent and scalable for growth, you have to clearly document it. Begin with a voice tool as a starting point, or simply play through a few improv-style scenarios, feeling out how you and other stakeholders would expect the brand to respond in a given situation. As you launch new products, would your brand message contain more excitement or confidence? When customers write in for support, is it more important for your staff to be appeasing or authoritative? Which main values or interests do you want your messaging to regularly drive home? Carefully document the responses, then identify any patterns or trends. Narrow down your list to a core set of descriptors (between three and five). From there, you can construct statements highlighting what your brand is and isn't. By establishing and documenting the foundation of your company's voice, you have a point of reference for any future communication or branding. MailChimp's voice and tone guidelines are a great point of reference for how to do this. The description is fairly brief, but each word gets a lot of work done. 2. Create consistency in every bit of content and copy A truly effective voice requires consistency across all messaging. No piece of copy, content or communication should stray from that core persona, or you risk hurting how consistent your brand is perceived. And given that consistency can provide a 23% revenue increase over brands that lack it, inconsistency is one mistake you really can't afford to make. Take Cards Against Humanity. Every piece of writing in its games and on its website bursts with snarky sarcasm. The company has even set up training to ensure that support staff can meet customer needs without losing the signature sass that has come to define the brand's voice. If you want to follow this model, share the brand guidelines you established in the point above so all staff members know what is and isn't allowed. Set up QA processes to make sure that everything aligns, from your social voice to your customer support voice. Specific tone can differ to suit different situations, but the central voice that defines your brand should remain constant across all communications and posts. 3. Raise your brand's voice through proper channels Everyone has that one extended relative—a grandma or a great aunt—who uses Facebook in a way that's just a little bit off. And that's exactly what you want to avoid. Because in a lot of ways, where you share your message matters almost as much as what you're sharing. The reason for this is twofold: First, it makes good financial sense to put brand resources and time where they will have the most impact. Second, and maybe more importantly, the platforms you use can impact how your brand's voice is perceived. A teen-focused brand posting primarily on LinkedIn will confuse a lot of people; the platform lends itself to more formal business voices. Forcing a casual, slangy brand into that mold could be a recipe for failure. Influencer marketing and advertising deserve attention here, too. If your strategy involves partnering with influencers or celebrities to sell a product—and there are plenty of good reasons to go this route—pay careful attention to how and where they share their messages. You can't demand that an influencer change their persona to advertise your product without defeating the point of influencer marketing. Instead, spend some time listening to and watching the people you want to partner with to find someone who naturally matches your brand's voice. For a great example, look to underwear brand TomboyX. The brand works hard to speak to the LGBTQ+ community in a voice that feels human, confident and aware. TomboyX found an ideal voice pairing in Cameron Esposito, with an influencer-esque ad that plays during Esposito's podcast, QUEERY. The ad, which involves Esposito giving a positive review of her own experience with the brand's product, sounds genuine and real, perfectly harmonizing with TomboyX's voice. 4. Walk the talk As we've discussed, content and copy are huge parts of brand voice definition—but that's not where consistency ends. For a voice to feel honest and genuine, it has to be backed up by other brand elements, including visuals and products. A lot of beauty and fashion brands have pivoted to include more "natural" messaging in recent years. "Organic," "pure," "unretouched" and similar terms have gone beyond slogans and now feel baked into brand personas. But, how many brands succeed when it comes to backing up those words with concrete action, both in terms of visual advertising and product offerings? Not many. That's part of what made American Eagle's recent #AerieREAL campaign so refreshing: The brand translated its voice and values into its ad campaign photography. For many consumers, this was the first fashion campaign they'd seen that included models with disabilities—real bodies wearing the product they were advertising. If you really want to sell your brand voice, you have to back it up. Otherwise, even the strongest voice will start to ring hollow. 5. Don't be afraid to—consciously—grow and adapt Finally, adjust your voice as your brand grows. That's not a call to revamp everything at the drop of a hat—constant rebranding won't do much to help encourage company recognition or loyalty. But an occasional and purposeful shift to respond to a growing market or changing attitude can and should be encouraged. A particularly relevant example of voice evolution is Soylent. It started out as a niche, DIY-focused product with a voice that spoke primarily to busy engineers and developers who cared more about the function than the form of what they were eating. The creator himself said that even the brand name was designed for "encouraging further discussion and thought," solidifying the brand's methodical, analytical voice. However, as the product picked up new followers and expanded into new markets, that voice changed. It holds on to some of its original directness but now brings friendlier reassurance to the table. What once read as intentional austerity now feels more palatable. Since the change, Soylent has seen more commercial success, moving into markets on Amazon and college campuses. It's unlikely that it would have seen that level of success without some voice adjustment to better speak to its newer, larger audience. Key takeaway There's no denying that it can feel daunting to establish your brand's voice in a world that already seems saturated with a lot of noise. But, it's not all about volume. Use the tips above to build a voice that resonates with your audience, and reap the benefits of better brand recognition and a better bottom line. Learn more about the power of brand voice & storytelling in our webinar with branding expert David Brier.

Easy Argumentative Essay Topics For Kids

<h1>Easy Argumentative Essay Topics For Kids</h1><p>Easy contentious article themes for kids are all over and you have a great deal of choices for building up a decent base for a solid composing ability. One thing to recollect, however, is that children and composing are two unique things. There are two different ways to move toward the assignment of composing, one route for grown-ups and another for kids.</p><p></p><p>When writing to communicate your musings, there are a couple of decides that you have to recollect when making a fundamental point. Children get diverted effectively and you have to concentrate on each objective in turn. This is the absolute first principle to make composing simple for kids.</p><p></p><p>Remember that composing isn't perusing. While this may sound self-evident, you will see that a few journalists are capable at the craft of words. Children are most certainly not. You should be clear in y our composition, compact, to the point and, most importantly, simple to understand.</p><p></p><p>Also recollect that most children love games and it doesn't take some time before they figure out how to make the most of their assignments and tasks. Try not to give them to an extreme and make certain to be reasonable. Make sure to keep the pace level and not very quick or too slow.</p><p></p><p>Use hues to assist them with understanding your focuses. Numerous children like splendid hues and on the off chance that you can furnish them with an intriguing topic to work with, the odds are acceptable that they will have a good time. You can begin with the hues you see each day around you. At that point you can include hues that might be all the more engaging for kids.</p><p></p><p>Make sure you do this out of sight commotions with the goal that the children won't get exhausted of hearing similar sounds over once more. Since you know the nuts and bolts, you ought to have a great deal of fun composing the simple factious paper points for kids.</p><p></p><p>For the motivation behind helping your kid's utilization of rationale, you might need to compose for them a free letter. This is a basic exercise and will assist you with seeing how children think. You can simply compose whatever you would typically keep in touch with another person. It will assist you with seeing how children think and it is a free action for your child.</p><p></p><p>If you need to invest more energy in kids' paper points, you can expound on a wide assortment of subjects, which may incorporate history, topography, math and even games. You can likewise investigate various subjects that intrigue to kids. Many will profit by this short composing exercise.</p>

How Many Papers Do College Students Writes Each Semester

How Many Papers Do College Students Writes Each Semester?As a high school student I always wanted to go to college but wasn't sure how many papers do college students write each semester. In this article I will talk about the average number of papers that students write every semester and some ways to increase your paper writing skills so you can start writing more.Every semester students have to fill out paperwork to get their grades updated. It can be quite daunting to take on this task because of all the papers to be done, but it can be very rewarding to get a higher grade because of it. A lot of students have a hard time just getting started writing papers and can take months before they start to feel confident enough to be successful in it.Most students start by writing an essay which is usually based off of their senior class work. This is a great way to start, but it can be easy to become bored if you don't use it correctly. Instead, start doing more informal research papers a nd get into the habit of writing two or three papers a week.The paper you are assigned should not take up the entire time you spend on your essay. Instead, break it down into parts and spend the extra time on these parts. This can be as simple as reading the essay to determine what you need to change. For example, you may find that the words you put into the paper are boring or too specific.Many college students start to ask why they are writing their essay in the first place. Instead of giving yourself a reason you should ask yourself why you want to do this at all.Since the assignment is only for one day you may as well enjoy what you are writing because you are making a valuable investment. A good idea for these papers is to write things that you would write in class or that you want to include in your portfolio.So start writing more papers and increasing your writing skills because there is money to be made. It will allow you to have a bigger impact on your high school grade. Al so, you will be able to write more papers per semester.

Lies Youve Been Told About An Adult Returning to School Essay Samples

<h1> Lies You've Been Told About An Adult Returning to School Essay Samples </h1> <p>When you're set up to return to class, permit me to know. Extra research contingent upon the particular religion you're a segment of can be an amazingly encouraging intends to go when looking for assets to help come back to class. These days instruction involves one of the most critical places in the formation of each person. Both instruction frameworks in the two nations were viewed as a fundamental bit of the key social developments. </p> <h2> The History of an Adult Returning to School Essay Samples Refuted</h2> <p>From time to time, due to life conditions, training after secondary school should be postponed. Before you come back to class, get your work done to realize what you are capable. In case you're trying to come back to class and require an adaptable calendar, an on-line degree could be perfect for you. Each school will have a monetary guide head w ho will have the option to assist you with appreciating the cost of setting off to that school. </p> <p>On-line learning anticipates that you should have more self-control than conventional schools. Instruction advances social move from various perspectives. </p> <p>Whether it's to promote a profession or perhaps to start another one, it is important to make the choice cautiously. Settling on the decision to come back to class end up being a fabulous initial step. In case you're considering coming back to class as a grown-up, get readied to join a major and rising pattern, yet also be sure to arm yourself with a couple essential abilities to enable you to succeed. Regardless of whether you're coming back to class to encourage yourself in your current profession, or hoping to acquire a change to another, it's critical to comprehend what you're getting into. </p> <h2> What to Expect From an Adult Returning to School Essay Samples? </h2> <p>Since the doctor can watch pictures of the individual and order the robot by methods for a figuring machine. Alongside guaranteeing that you refer to your sources appropriately and present data in accordance with the guidelines of APA style, there are various things you can do so as to make the creative cycle only somewhat easier. There are sorts of wellbeing specializer that are required in medication. In about all circumstances, their issues could have been forestalled with better arranging and research.</p> <h2> Adult Returning to School Essay Samples Secrets </h2> <p>This test is basically intended to assist you with composing your own procedure exposition. These tips offer you some supportive rules which will assist you with setting up your paper and ensure that it's organized appropriately. In a perfect world, you wish to pick a subject that is sufficiently explicit to let you completely look into and get familiar with the point, yet not all that particular that you make some trying memories discovering wellsprings of data. </p> <p>An assessment exposition layout shows up much appreciate a customary paper plot. Become familiar with the manner in which the article is scored. Before you start your exposition, acquaint yourself with a couple of the essentials. The article furnishes you with an opportunity to uncover how adequately it is conceivable to peruse and fathom an entry and make an exposition investigating the section. </p> <p>Applying for grants can curtail your cash based costs and guarantee it is more straightforward that you come back to school. They are a mainstream subsidizing hotspot for grown-up understudies the nation over. A Pell Grant is promptly accessible for understudies that may show monetary need. School awards and grants for grown-ups can help you fundamentally bring down the volume you need to get. </p> <p>A number of unique award and advance projects saved for focused populaces Borrowing cash to cover your training can resemble the ideal approach. In this manner, the proposition to support subsidizing for riverside recreational offices probably won't be advocated. Consider that installment your current spending plan. Can genuinely bring down your retirement support. </p> <h2>Ruthless Adult Returning to School Essay Samples Strategies Exploited </h2> <p>It's easy to disregard the amount they cost when you're in school and don't have to make installments. Before you obtain, verify you see plainly the states of the credits and the time allotment they will take to pay off. Obviously, while you may think you require the cash, government recipes may show in any case. In any event, when you're in a rush, be very cautious about paying somebody to search for monetary guide for you. </p> <h2>What an Adult Returning to School Essay Samples Is - and Wh at it Is Not </h2> <p>Mature grown-ups have a lot of long haul understanding and capacities that might be made an interpretation of and connected to any scope of scholarly subjects. In addition, grown-up training was said to give another opportunity to instruction to the students particularly in the fields of numeracy and proficiency, and in immature economies. </p> <p>You will understand that without a doubt the most significant component of any more prominent training program for grown-ups is adaptability. A U.S. government report shows that when it has to do with learning, grown-up understudies wish to fathom the upsides of training and they are task-arranged individuals who have understanding on their side. Additionally, grown-ups wish to build on their profession astuteness and utilize their training to help their present ability assortment. For example, the absence of medical caretakers and nursing related experts has been an issue for quite a while. </p>

Finding the Best Argumentative Essay Topics : Drug Testing

<h1> Finding the Best Argumentative Essay Topics : Drug Testing </h1> <p>Numerous sorts of medication tests show up in different manners. There are bunches of people who state sedate testing isn't right and they have reasons and realities on why it isn't all in all correct to test understudies for the utilization of illicit medications. It presents an opportunity for representatives to recoup through explicit recuperation programs built up to the detriment of the association. Research center based medication testing is done in such a way it utilizes two distinct sorts of testing strategies. </p> <p>Employees are consistently in the perfect spot to act in the perfect way conceivable in occurrences where they've been tried and assisted with recouping through medication free zones in their different associations. All the more along these lines, they will in general be set up to convey the necessary outcomes with such tests set up. On the off chance that the representative is made to take a medication test hence and passes then it shows up awful on the business. For instance, a few workers in associations must give individual subtleties to their families, which causes the loss of security. </p> <p>Hopefully, whenever you plunk down to form an exposition, you will be in a situation to complete it in a concise period. To get astounding scores, you just should make estimated strides while composing expositions. At some stage, you're probably going to be mentioned to form a pugnacious article. An awesome contentious article will be founded on set up or new research instead of just on your thoughts and emotions. </p> <p>The end gives the absolute decision of the contention. Other than a decent structure, you will require a contention, a solid theory, and solid research. The postulation gives you a rule on the most ideal approach to with composing the article. Your theory should be pertinent so the review can utilize a structure that is adaptable so as to fit in the shoes of the perusers. </p> <p>You should build up an excellent contention, which envelops your essential point, yet additionally all the pieces which make this up. Contend viewpoint which brought about the holocaust. You need to find great proof to fortify your thoughts along with guides to show the proof. </p> <p>The third and fourth passage should give the reality of the issue and the repercussions if the issue isn't illuminated. You don't have to discover too specialized with lawful factious papers, yet be sure to get your work done on what the current laws about your preferred theme really state. For a pugnacious paper it's shrewd to set up three cases which gives a solid explanation for your position on the point issue. Ensure you can bolster whatever you state with clear and solid proof, and your cases will be significantly more grounded! </p> <p>Moral contentious exposition subjects are a couple of the most straightforward to become overly enthusiastic with. Each American ought to figure out how to communicate in Spanish. He ought to figure out how to communicate in English. </p> <p>Year round school is certifiably not a smart thought. Regardless of whether you're composing a school paper or higher school article you need in the first place a phenomenal theme. Doing sports in school should be obligatory. Your perusers should see the whole picture, and that is the thing that you should focus on. </p> <h2>Argumentative Essay Topics : Drug Testing Features </h2> <p>Though the Atkins diet might be an effective way to deal with drop some weight, people should avoid the Atkins Diet on the grounds that the downsides exceed the constructive angles. The downsides of the Atkins Diet are an insufficient amount of sustenance and loads of dangers that could bring about incessant sicknesses. Psychoactive medications regularly impactsly affect creatures. They are known to carry emotional changes with respect to cognizance, for example sharpness that is seen in creatures that have been exposed to psychoactive medications, for example, caffeine a nd cocaine. </p> <p>Animal testing is an amazingly unmistakable point in the current society. Creature experimentation has existed for quite a while and many individuals have gotten entranced about creatures and how they work. There are a ton of impacts associated with psychoactive medication utilizes that are illustrated underneath agreeing the results of psychoactive medication testing on creatures. The absolute first stage at the testing site is to partition the pee into two particular aliquots. </p>

Stephen Krashens - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 12 Words: 3657 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/09/13 Category Advertising Essay Did you like this example? Summary of Stephen Krashens Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition By Reid Wilson First appeared: Language Learning #9 and 10 Bibliographic information: Krashen, Stephen D. 1981. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. English Language Teaching series. London: Prentice-Hall International (UK) Ltd. 202 pages. Quote that captures the essense of the book: What theory implies, quite simply, is that language acquisition, first or second, occurs when comprehension of real messages occurs, and when the acquirer is not on the defensive Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill. It does not occur overnight, however. Real language acquisition develops slowly, and speaking skills emerge significantly later than listening skills, even when conditions are perfect. The best methods are therefore those that supply comprehensible input in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to hear. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Stephen Krashens" essay for you Create order These methods do not force early production in the second language, but allow students to produce when they are ready, recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production. (6-7) Summary of Part I. Introduction: The Relationship of Theory to Practice In deciding how to develop language teaching methods and materials, one can take three approaches: make use of second language acquisition theory, make use of applied linguistics research, and make use of ideas and intuition from experience. These approaches should in fact support each other and lead to common conclusions. This book incorporates all three approaches, with a hope of reintroducing theory to language teachers. While most current theory may still not be the final word on second language acquisition, it is hoped that teachers will use the ideas in this book as another source alongside of their classroom and language-learning experiences. Summary of Part II. Second Language Acquisition Theory There are five key hypotheses about second language acquisition: 1. THE ACQUISITION-LEARNING DISCTINCTION Adults have two different ways to develop compentence in a language: language acquisition and language learning. Language acquisition is a subconscious process not unlike the way a child learns language. Language acquirers are not consciously aware of the grammatical rules of the language, but rather develop a feel for correctness. In non-technical language, acquisition is picking-up a language. Language learning, on the other hand, refers to the concious knowledge of a second language, knowing the rules, being aware of them, and being able to talk about them. Thus language learning can be compared to learning about a language. The acquistion-learning disctinction hypothesis claims that adults do not lose the ability to acquire languages the way that children do. Just as research shows that error correction has little effect on children learning a first language, so too error correction has little affect on language acquisition. 2. THE NATURAL ORDER HYPOTHESIS The natural order hypothesis states that the acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early, others late, regardless of the first language of a speaker. However, as will be discussed later on in the book, this does not mean that grammar should be taught in this natural order of acquisition. 3. THE MONITOR HYPOTHESIS The language that one has subconsciously acquired initiates our utterances in a second language and is responsible for our fluency, whereas the language that we have consciously learned acts as an editor in situations where the learner has enough time to edit, is focused on form, and knows the rule, such as on a grammar test in a language classroom or when carefully writing a composition. This conscious editor is called the Monitor. Different individuals use their monitors in different ways, with different degrees of success. Monitor Over-users try to always use their Monitor, and end up so concerned with correctness that they cannot speak with any real fluency. Monitor Under-users either have not consciously learned or choose to not use their conscious knowledge of the language. Although error correction by others has little influence on them, they can often correct themelves based on a feel for correctness. Teachers should aim to produce Optimal Monitor users, who use the Monitor when it is appropriate and when it does not interfere with communication. They do not use their conscious knowledge of grammar in normal conversation, but will use it in writing and planned speech. Optimal Monitor users can therefore use their learned competence as a supplement to their acquired competence. 4. THE INPUT HYPOTHESIS The input hypothesis answers the question of how a language acquirer develops comptency over time. It states that a language acquirer who is at level i must receive comprehensible input that is at level i+1. We acquire, in other words, only when we understand language that contains structure that is a little beyond where we are now. This understanding is possible due to using the context of the language we are hearing or reading and our knowledge of the world. However, instead of aiming to receive input that is exactly at our i+1 level, or instead of having a teacher aim to teach u s grammatical structure that is at our i+1 level, we should instead just focus on communication that is understandable. If we do this, and if we get enough of that kind of input, then we will in effect be receiving and thus acquiring out i+1. Prduction ability emerges. It is not taught directly. Evidences for the input hypothesis can be found in the effectiveness of caretaker speech from an adult to a child, of teacher-talk from a teacher to a language student, and of foreigner-talk from a sympathetic conversation partner to a language learner/acquirer. One result of this hypothesis is that language students should be given a initial silent period where they are building up acquired competence in a language before they begin to produce it. Whenever language acquirers try to produce language beyond what they have acquired, they tend to use the rules they have already acquired from their first language, thus allowing them to communicate but not really progress in the second language. 5. THE AFFECTIVE FILTER HYPOTHESIS Motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety all affect language acquisition, in effect raising or lowering the stickiness or penetration of any comprehensible input that is received. These five hypotheses of second language acquisition can be summarized: 1. Acquisition is more important than learning. 2. In order to acquire, two conditions are necessaary. The first is comprehensible (or even better, comprehended) input containing i+1, structures a bit beyond the acquiers current level, and second, a low or weak affective filter to allow the input in. In view of these findings, question is raised: does classroom language teaching help? Classroom teaching helps when it provides the necessary comprehensible input to those students who are not at a level yet which allows them to receive comprehensible input from the real world or who do not have access to real world language speakers. It can also help when it provides students communication tools to make better use of the outside world, and it can provide beneficial conscious learning for optimal Monitor users. Various research studies have been done comparing the amount of language competance and the amount of exposure to the language either in classroom-years or length of residence, the age of the language acquirer, and the acculturation of the language acquirer. The results of these studies are consistent with the above acquisition hypotheses: the more comprehensible input one receives in low-stress situations, the more language competance that one will have. Summary of Part III: Providing Input for Acquisition Once it is realized that receiving comprehensible input is central to acquiring a second language, questions are immediately raised concerning the nature and sources of this type of input and the role of the second language classroom. To what extent is the second language classroom beneficial? Classrooms help when they provide the comprehensible input that the acquirer is going to receive. If acquirers have access to real world input, and if their current ability allows them understand at least some of it, then the classroom is not nearly as significant. An informal, immersion environment has the opportunity to provide tons of input; however, that input is not always comprehensible to a beginner, and often for an adult beginner the classroom is better than the real world in providing comprehensible input. However, for the intermediate level student and above, living and interacting in an environment in which the language is spoken will likely prove to be better for the student, especially considering the fact that a language classroom will not be able to reflect the broad range of language use that the real world provides. The classrooms goal is to prepare students to be able to understand the language used outside the classroom. What role does speaking (output) play in second language acquisition? It has no direct role, since language is acquired by comprehensible input, and in fact someone who is not able to speak for physical reasons can still acquire the full ability to understand language. However, speaking does indirectly help in two ways: 1) speaking produces conversation, which produces comprehensible input, and 2) your speaking allows native speakers to judge what level you are at and then adjust their speak downward to you, providing you input that is more easily understood. What kind of input is optimal for acquisition? The best input is comprehensible, which sometimes means that it needs to be slower and more carefully articulated, using common vocabulary, less slang, and shorter sentences. Optimal input is interesting and/or relevant and allows the acquirer to focus on the meaning of the message and not on the form of the message. Optimal input is not grammatically sequenced, and a grammatical syllabus should not be used in the language classroom, in part because all students will not be at exactly the same level and because each structure is often only introduced once before moving on to something else. Finally, optimal input must focus on quantity, although most language teachers have to date seriously underestimated how much comprehensible input is actually needed for an acquirer to progress. In addition to receiving the right kind of input, students should have their affective filter kept low, meaning that classroom stress should be minimized and students should not be put on the defensive. One result of this is that students errors should not be corrected. Students should be taught how to gain more input from the outside world, including helping them acquire conversational competence, the means of managing conversation. Summary of Part IV: The Role of Grammar, or Putting Grammar in its Place As should be apparent by now, the position taken in this book is that second language teaching should focus on encouraging acquisition, on providing input that stimulates the subconscious language acquisition potential all normal human beings have. This does not mean to say, however, that there is no room at all for conscious learning. Conscious learning does have a role, but it is no longer the lead actor in the play. For starters, we must realize that learning does not turn into acquisition. While the idea that we first learn a grammar rule and then use it so much that it becomes internalized is common and may seem obvious to many, it is not supported by theory nor by the observation of second language acquirers, who often correctly use rules they have never been taught and dont even remember accurately the rules they have learned. However, there is a place for grammar, or the conscious learning of the rules of a language. Its major role is in the use of the Monitor, which allows Monitor users to produce more correct output when they are given the right conditions to actually use their Monitor, as in some planned speech and writing. However, for correct Monitor use the users must know the rules they are applying, and these would need to be rules that are easy to remember and applya very small subset of all of the grammatical rules of a language. It is not worthwhile for language acquisition to teach difficult rules which are hard to learn, harder to remember, and sometimes almost impossible to correctly apply. For many years there was controversy in language-teaching literature on whether grammar should be deductively or inductively taught. However, as both of these methods involve language learning and not language acquisition, this issue should not be central for language teaching practice. There has similarly been controversy as to whether or not errors should be corrected in language learners speech. Second language acquisition theory suggests that errors in ordinary conversation and Monitor-free situations should not be corrected, and that errors should only be corrected when they apply to easy to apply and understand grammatical rules in situations where known Monitor-users are able to use their Monitor. There is a second way in which the teaching of grammar in a classroom can be helpful, and that is when the students are interested in learning about the language they are acquiring. This language appreciation, or linguistics, however, will only result in language acquisition when grammar is taught in the language that is being acquired, and it is actually the comprehensible input that the students are receiving, not the content of the lecture itself, that is aiding acquisition. This is a subtle point. In effect, both teachers and students are deceiving themselves. They believe that it is the subject matter itself, the study of grammar, that is responsible for the students progress in second language acquisition, but in reality their progress is coming from the medium and not the message. And subject matter that held their interest would do just as well, so far as second language acquisition is concerned, as long as it required extensive use of the target language. And perhaps many students would be more interested in a different subject matter and would thus acquire more than they would in such a grammar-based classroom. Summary of Part V: Approaches to Language Teaching Popular language teaching methods today include grammar-translation, audio-lingualism, cognitive-code, the direct method, the natural approach, total physical response, and Suggestopedia. How do these methods fare when they are evaluated by Second Language Acquisition theory? Each method will be evaluated using the following criteria: Requirements for optimal input comprehensible interesting/relevant not grammatically sequenced quantity low filter level provides tools for conversational management Learning restricted to: Rules that are easily learned and applied, and not acquired yet Monitor users Situations when the learner has adequate time and a focus on form 1. GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION Grammar-translation usually consists of an explanation of a grammatical rule, with some example sentences, a bilingual vocabulary list, a reading section exemplifying the grammatical rule and incorporating the vocabulary, and exercises to practice using the grammar and vocabulary. Most of these classes are taught in the students first language. The grammar-translation method provides little opportunity for acquisition and relies too heavily on learning. 2. AUDIO-LINGUALISM An audio-lingual lesson usually begins with a dialogue which contains the grammar and vocabulary to be focused on in the lesson. The students mimic the dialogue and eventually memorize it. After the dialogue comes pattern drills, in which the grammatical structure introduced in the dialogue is reinforced, with these drills focusing on simple repetition, substitution, transformation, and translation. While the audio-lingual method provides opportunity for some acquisition to occur, it cannot measure up to newer methods which provide much more comprehensible input in a low-filter environment. 3. COGNITIVE-CODE Cognitive-code is similar to grammar-translation except that it focuses on developing all four skills of language: speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Communicative competence is focused upon. Since the cognitive-code approach provides more comprehensible input than grammar-translation does, it should produce more acquisition, but other newer methods provide even more and have better results. Learning is overemphasized with this method. 4. THE DIRECT METHOD Several approaches have been called the direct method; the approach evaluated here involves all discussion in the target language. The teacher uses examples of language in order to inductively teach grammar; students are to try to guess the rules of the language by the examples provided. Teachers interact with the students a lot, asking them questions about relevant topics and trying to use the grammatical structure of the day in the conversation. Accuracy is sought and errors are corrected. This method provides more comprehensible input than the methods discussed so far, but it still focuses too much on grammar. 5. THE NATURAL APPROACH In the Natural Approach the teacher speaks only the target language and class time is committed to providing input for acquisition. Students may use either the language being taught or their first language. Errors in speech are not corrected, however homework may include grammar exercises that will be corrected. Goals for the class emphasize the students being able use the language to talk about ideas, perform tasks, and solve problems. This approach aims to fulfill the requirements for learning and acquisition, and does a great job in doing it. Its main weakness is that all classroom teaching is to some degree limited in its ability to be interesting and relevant to all students. 6. TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE Total Physical Response, or TPR, involves the students listening and responding to commands given by the teacher such as sit down and walk, with the complexity of the commands growing over time as the class acquires more language. Student speech is delayed, and once students indicate a willingness to talk they initially give commands to other students. Theory predicts that TPR should result in substantial language acquisition. Its content may not be always interesting and relevant for the students, but should produce better results than the audio-lingual and grammar-translation methods. . SUGGESTOPEDIA Suggestopedia classes are small and intensive, and focus on providing a very low-stress, attractive environment (partly involving active and passive seances complete with music and meditation) in which acquisition can occur. Some of the students first language is used at the beginning, but most in the target language. The role of the teacher is very important in creating the right atmo sphere and in acting out the dialogues that form the core of the content. Suggestopedia seems to provide close to optimal input while not giving too much emphasis to grammar. What does applied linguistics research have to say about these methods? Applied research has examined the older methods of grammar-translation, audio-lingual, and cognitive-code much more than it has looked at the newer methods. There seems to be only small differences in the results of the older methods. While much research remains to be done, Total Physical Response and the other newer approaches produce significantly better results than old approaches. So what is better, the classroom or the real world? Quite simply, the role of the second or foreign language classroom is to bring a student to a point where he can begin to use the outside would for further second language acquisition. This means we have to provide students with enough comprehensible input to bring their second language competence to the point where they can begin to understand language heard on the outside. In other words, all second language classes are transitional. In the real world, conversations with sympat hetic native speakers who are willing to help the acquirer understand are very helpful. These native speakers engage in what is called foreigner talk, not very different from the way that a parent would talk to a child. Voluntary pleasure reading is also beneficial for second language acquisition, especially as the reader is free to choose reading material that is of interest and the proper level in order to be understood. Taking content classes in the language that is being acquired can also be helpful to the more advanced learner, especially when the class is composed of students who are all acquiring the second language. How does all of the above affect our views on achievement testing? As students will gear their studying to the type of tests they expect to take, the kinds of language tests that are given is very important. Achievement tests should meet this requirement: preparation for the test, or studying for the test, should obviously encourage the student to do things that will provide more comprehensible input and the tools to gain even more input when the class is over. With this in mind, general reading comprehension tests are helpful, as would be a test that would encourage students to participate in conversations and employ the tools of communicative competence. Assuming that the conclusions in this book are correct, many new classroom language materials need to be developed. These materials should focus on providing much comprehensible input to beginning and intermediate students and should provide them with the means to gain even more input outside the classroom. Such materials should on ly focus on grammatical rules that are easy to learn and apply. Readers should have much more reading material in them and much fewer exercises and should have enough content that students can choose which topics to read about. A quote from the conclusion: Even if the theory presented here is totally correct, and my suggestions for application are in fact the appropriate ones, there are some serious problems that need to be mentioned before concluding. These have to do with the acceptance, by teachers and students, of language acquisition as primary, and comprehensible input as the means of encouraging language acquisition. These problems are caused by the fact that acquisition differs from learning in two major ways: acquisition is slow and subtle, while learning is fast and, for some people, obvious. I think that I have presented a conservative view of language acquisition theory and its applications, conservative in the sense that it attempts to be consistent with all empirical data that are known to me. It is consistent with the way thousands of people have acquired second languages throughout history, and in many cases acquired them very well. They acquired second languages while